\/' 



Studies in Sociology 

SOCIOLOGICAL MONOGRAPH No. 15 



Vol. IV 



FEBRUARY 1920 



No. 3 



EDITED BY EMORY S. BOGARDUS ' 

Department of Sociology, University of Southera California 



COMMUNITY 
ORGANIZATION 



BY 

CLARENCE E. RAINWATER, A.M. 

Assistant Professor of Sociology 
University of Southern California 



Copyright 1920 by 
Clarence E. Rainwater 



Published by the Southern California Sociological Society 

University of Southern California 

Los Angeles, California 



£)CLA559970 



m -8 1920 



JXZ.3/ 



COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 

By CLARENCE E. RAINWATER, A.M. 

The nineteenth century witnessed the deterioration and disre- 
gard of the neighborhood ; the twentieth is to see its re-valuation and 
reconstruction. While there has been a marked disintegration in 
neighborhood life, especially in the downtown sections of our larger 
cities, the neighborhood has not become obsolete; its depreciation 
is more of form than of spirit, objective rather than subjective. 
This fact is evidence of the vitality of the neighborhood and sug- 
gests the possibility of its reconstruction. The function of the 
neighborhood in social evolution has been stated by Cooley,^ Woods,^ 
and others.^ Contemporary efforts toward its reorganization rest 
on the theory that its function in the complicated society of today is 
equivalent to that which it performed in the creation of that society. 
Prerequisite, however, to neighborhood restoration is a change in 
the attitude on the part both of statesmen and of administrators of 
non-governmental institutions. The neighborhood can no longer be 

'C. H. Cooley, Social Organization, Chapters I-VIII. 

'R. A. Woods, "The Neighborhood in Social Reconstruction," Amer. So- 
ciological Society Papers and Proceedings, 1913. 

'J. Dewey and J. H. Tufts, Ethics, Chapter II. 

Editor's Note: The author of this monograph was born near New 
Canton, Pike County, Illinois. He received the degree of Bachelor of Arts 
from Drake University in 1907, and of Master of Arts from the same 
institution in 1908. He was a graduate student in sociology at the Univer- 
sity of Chicago, 1908-1911, and is at the present time a candidate for the 
degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Chicago. He was 
Director, Hamilton Park Community Center, Chicago, 1910-1917; Instructor 
in Recreation, University of Chicago, 1913-1917; Dean of American College 
of Physical Education, 1917-1919, and Assistant Professor of Sociology, 
University of Southern California, 1919. Professor Rainwater has pub- 
lished the "Educational Aspect of Play and Recreation," Univ. of Indiana 
Extension Bui., Vol. II, No. i, and prepared two extensive syllabi,— "The 
Meaning of Play," and "The Play Movement." 



disregarded, either by the poHtician or the social worker. Its po- 
tentiahties are considerable, and human welfare movements must 
work from it as well as toward it, by it as well as for it. The 
process by which the neighborhood is to be constructed is desig- 
nated by the term, "community organization." The organization 
of the people themselves is known as "the comm.unity association ;" 
the place of meeting, with its various activities ; "the community 
center" ; while its distinctive forms of expression are "the commu- 
nity forum" and "the community council." 

I. The Actuality of the Problem. The actuality of the prob- 
lem of community organization is indicated by the efficacy of groitp 
discussion of public questions. This function is a distinctive feat- 
ure of the reconstructed neighborhood. While our governmental 
machinery provides a suitable instrument — the ballot — for register- 
ing decisions upon questions of city, state or national policies, it 
does not furnish a correlative opportunity for arriving at those de- 
cisions which we are permitted to register at the polls. Conse- 
quently our people have never developed the art of forming public 
opinion through community action. They rely upon partisan news- 
papers and magazines, political bosses and propagandists to think 
and speak for them. Have the people a voice? They rarely con- 
gregate to consider any question except in response to a political 
party, a religious sect, an industrial class, an occupational group; 
and then it is to listen rather than to speak. Is there not need, 
therefore, for a community forum, — non-sectarian, non-partisan, 
non-commercialized and presenting both sides of every question? 

But many subjects discussed by the group at the community 
forum may not be disposed of either by casting a ballot or by pass- 
ing a resolution. The solution is sometimes found only in action 
by the people themselves ; and herein it frequently becomes neces- 
sary to call upon experienced officials or estabHshed organizations 
for assistance. This co-operative effort brings both children and 
adults into intelligent and personal relationship with welfare agen- 
cies at work in their neighborhood, with progressive movements of 
the day, with industrial corporations and labor organizations, and 
with the government of city, county, state and nation. 

The reconstructed neighborhood is thus the fulfillment of democ- 
racy. In itself, it is a little democracy; in its relation to city, 
county, state and national government, it is a dynamo of greater 
efficiency; a bulwark against rule by a boss or a class. 



2. Principles of Community Organization. Among the fun- 
damental principles of community organization are those of partici- 
pation, correlation, development, self-support and democracy. So- 
cial obligation implies opportunity for participation in conduct that 
fulfills the obligation. The organized neighborhood opens the way 
to active service on the part of every member, whether adult, youth, 
or child. The individual is more than beneficiary or critic; he is 
actor, playing a real part, hov^-ever slight, in the drama of democ- 
racy. And in order to secure the minimum of dupUcation and the 
maximum of continuity of effort there must be correlation between 
individuals, agencies and movements. There must be no gaps in the 
line and the weak forces must be strengthened. Development is a 
third principle. In this respect community organization is a form 
of social telesis. It is self-directed growth toward a preconceived 
goal that harmonizes with the welfare of the nation. It frankly 
challenges the laissez-faire theory of the spontaneous development 
of collective sentiment and institutions. In keeping with self- 
direction, the community organization movement is self-supporting. 
While it is entided to the free use of public buildings, including 
heat, light and janitor service, it is both social justice to other 
communities and a safeguard of local autonomy for each com- 
munity association to depend upon voluntary self-support. A fifth 
principle of community organization is that of democracy. The 
community association is all-inclusive, subject to control by majority 
rule and grants both a hearing and a square deal to all. One does 
not become a member by joining, one is a member by the mere fact 
of residence. Every other movement divides the neighborhood 
politically, religiously, fraternally, socially or economically; this 
association unites it. In this respect it differs from sovietism, 
bureaucracy, or an oligarchy, all of which are forms of government 
by a particular class or element of the whole, as it is like the New 
England town meeting or the more ancient Saxon "mark," Russian 
"mir" or Swiss "canton." Some associations have adopted as their 
motto or slogan, "Each for all, all for each." 

3. The Occasion for Comm,unity Organization. The occasion 
for community organization arose in connection with public and 
philanthropic provisions made for the conservation of leisure. The 
present system of industry divides the day into three periods of 
time, approximately equal in length and devoted respectively to 



work, sleep, and leisure. The leisure period offers a fertile field 
either for the development of cultural and political institutions or 
for commercial exploitation, immorality and social and political 
disintegration. It holds within its grasp the peril and the 
promise of democracy. The decisive factor is the organization for 
active and universal participation in art and citizenship, on the part 
of every child, youth and adult. "The use of a nation's leisure is 
the test of its civilization."* 

In the evolution of organized leisure, there have appeared succes- 
sively the playground, the fieldhouse, the public school social center, 
and community organization. The last includes the essential ele- 
ments of the preceding three and adds the forum and council. It 
retains all forms of wholesome play and recreation, from the sand- 
pile to the civic theatre, but is distinguished by the relationship 
which it sustains to government. The transition from the simpler 
to the more comprehensive organization of leisure arose in the fol- 
lowing manner. The three earlier attempts met with only moderate 
response on the part of adults, although popular with children and 
young people. This fact was conspicuously true of efforts directed 
toward either gymnastic or social activities alone. Art expression — 
especially pageantry and choral singing — and civic activities — not- 
ably public forums and welfare movements — made a greater appeal 
to maturity. Contrary to child play, adult leisure pursuit less fre- 
quently accepts an activity as an end in itself ; it finds ulterior aims 
to be sources of greater satisfaction. Hence there arose the many 
welfare agencies of the last decade — overlapping, duplicating, para- 
sitic and invariably directed by forces without the neighborhood. 
While these conditions prevailed, a further development in the 
organization of leisure was necessary both for economy and effi- 
ciency in effort. 

In the further attack upon the problem of adult leisure, leading 
up to community organization, three factors shaped developments. 
The first was the realization that a community may do for itself 
what outside forces alone cannot do for it. Many neighborhoods 
in which large sums of money were spent annually, by various 
social welfare agencies, continued nevertheless to yield the regular 
harvest of poverty, crime, misery, because the inhabitants of these 
districts never co-operated collectively with the agencies working 

*The Civic Theatre in Relation to the Redemption of Leisure, Percy Mac- 
kaye, N Y., 1912 ; p. 30 f . 

4 



in their vicinity. A neighborhood can neither be re-constructed 
against its will nor without self-help on its own part. Aid from 
without must be met by organizated response from within. 

The second realization was the fact that a neighborhood may be 
over-organized ; it may be burdened with more movements, agencies, 
clubs than it can support or utilize. The question arises, then, why 
add the community council ? Is it not another organization and will 
it not dissipate further the energies of collective effort? And this 
is the answer, interpretive of the spirit of community organization : 
the community council is not an organization in the community, but 
the organization of the community. It contributes not more organ- 
izations but more organization. It is comprehensive and correlates 
all useful agencies, strengthening the weaker but necessary ones, 
preventing unnecessary and duplicating ones from forming, and 
exposing those which exploit to the fresh air of public opinion. It 
puts first things first, and second things second, — by its single alle- 
giance to the good of the whole. 

The third concept was the theory of the relationship of the 
neighborhood to the perpetuity and efificiency of self-government, — 
especially in municipal administration and national politics. Thomas 
Jefferson'' foresaw it; James Bryce^ sensed it with respect to mu- 
nicipalities ; and more recently others'^ have stated it. The organ- 
ized neighborhood is a little democracy and is generically and dy- 
namically related to the larger democracy of city, state and nation. 
Past failures in the latter may be traced to the absence of the 
former. Community organization is the mechanism by which in- 
dividual volition is harmonized with collective welfare. Only as 
this fact is realized will social progress be fundamentally effected. 

°"There are two subjects which I shall claim a right to further as long 
as I have breath, the public education and the sub-division of the counties 
into wards (townships). I consider the continuance of republican govern- 
ment as absolutely hanging on these two hooks." — Thomas Jefferson, His Life 
and Writings, Foreman, p. 435. 

^The American C ommonwealth, James Bryce. 

'The Need of Citizenship Organization," Woodrow Wilson, American 
City, Nov., 191 1, pp. 265-268.. 

"The Neighborhood in Social Reconstruction," R. A. Woods, Amer. So- 
ciological Society Papers and Proceedings, Dec, 1914. 

"Community Councils, What They Have Done and What is Their Func- 
tion," John Collier, Conf. of Social Work, 1919. 

5 



4- The Method of Community Organization. The mere fed- 
eration of existing neighborhood agencies and movements would not 
constitute an organization of the community. Such an enterprise 
would be an inadequate instrument for the expression of collective 
interests ; it would be conciliatory and advisory instead of authori- 
itatve and dominant. An organization of the whole is necessary. 
And this organization must correlate with both local institutions and 
individuals not members of organizations. 

Among the local institutions there are : town government, 
schools, churches, business and improvement associations, civic 
leagues and women's clubs, athletic, social, dramatic and musical 
societies maintained by young people, and the children's playground. 
These, the organized neighborhood will stimulate and correlate as 
functional units of a single whole. ^ 

Among the city, state, and national agencies and movements with 
which the organized community will establish a functional relation- 
ship are departments of government and movements for the ad- 
vancement of cultural interests and social welfare. To these the 
community gives publicity, personal service, patronage ; from them 
it receives inspiration, technical assistance, and financial aid or the 
equivalent. 

5. An Example of an Organised Community. In order to 
iMustrate the practical operation of community organization, the 
writer would like to describe the Hamilton Park Community Coun- 
cil, Chicago.^ The community which was organized is a residential 
and apartment house section of the city and comprised an area with 
a radius of three-eighths of a mile, bounding one of Chicago's small 
parks. The population within the circle indicated was approxi- 
mately 15,000, while twice that number, living within a radius of 
one-half mile, made regular use of park facilities. The park with 
its thirty acres of outdoor play equipment and its fieldhouse, con- 
taining an assembly hall, four club rooms, two gymnasiums, men's 
and women's shower baths and a library, constituted the stage for 
most of its activities, although the Council was not a park booster 
club. 

^Consult, "Mobilizing a Rural Community," E. L. Morgan, Mass. Agri- 
cultural College, Extension Bulletin No. 23, Amherst, 19 18. 

"Editor's Note : Professor Rainwater inaugurated this movement at 
Hamilton Park in 1914, and was Chairman of the Board of Directors until 
1917- 

6 



The executive committee of this Council was composed of eight elected 
officers : the president, a first and a second vice-president, a secretary and 
assistant secretary, a treasurer and assistant treasurer, a chairman of the 
board of directors ; and the board of directors, comprising the respective 
chairmen of the standing committees. These committees were seventeen in 
number: membership, publicity, ways and means, program, vigilance, wel- 
fare, improvement, home and markets, education, civics, athletic, social, 
musical, dramatic, literary, arts and crafts, and outdoor hfe. The duties of 
these committees 3s designated in the by-laws were as follows: 

Membership committee : To enlist individuals as active members of the 
Council; enroll local organizations on the roster of those represented in the 
Council; and procure names and addresses, officers and objectives, dates and 
places of meetings of all organizations outside of the neighborhood, with 
which the community should seek to co-operate. 

Publicity com.mittees : To post weekly announcements of neighborhood 
events on the bulletin boards of the fieldhouse, public schools, churches, 
stores, and suburban railway stations; to send news items of interest to the 
community to both local and city papers and church calendars ; and to pub- 
lish, if advisable, a weekly community newspaper, not run for profit and 
dedicated to the idealistic interests of the neighborhood. 

Ways and Means committee : To suggest methods of raising funds for 
the maintenance and extension of the work of the Council; and to study 
critically the adequacy of public facilities^ — school buildings, playgrounds, 
field-house — and submit plans for the extension of the same where neces- 
sary. 

Program committee : To survey the community in search for problems 
upon which the Council may work; and to establish a calendar of festivals, 
pageants and athletic contests, both indoor and outdoor, to be given by the 
neighborhood, uniting all forces, including public school, Sunday school and 
park groups that these occasions may be climactic expressions of community 
recreation. 

Vigilance committee : To encourage obedience to city and park ordi- 
nances and co-operate with the police in their strict enforcement; to inspect 
the hygienic and moral conditions of pool-rooms, dance-halls and motion- 
picture shows, working in sympathy with their proprietors to elevate stand- 
ards ; to co-operate with the Englewood Law and Order League, and the 
Englewood Juvenile Protective Association; and to enhance the spirit of 
sportsmanship among the patrons of the park. 

Welfare committee : To conduct a neighborhood survey of housing, 
industrial, educational, recreational conditions; to maintain a local relief 
station in connection with the United Charities; to conduct an employment 
bureau ; and to maintain a juvenile savings bank in co-operation with a local 
banking house to teach all children thrift and enable some to acquire funds 
for summer camping. 



Improvement committee: To co-operate with the Hamihon Park Im- 
provement Association in its work of sprinkUng streets in summer, remov- 
ing snow from sidewalks in winter, beautifying parkways and securing ade- 
quate street Hghting and the removal of garbage; to extend improvement 
service beyond the present boundaries of the association ; to secure better 
transportation facilities to and from the city; to inaugurate a campaign for 
"Hamilton Park Beautiful," removing weeds, rubbish and bill-boards from 
vacant lots, with "Flowers Everywhere" as its slogan ; and to offer a prize 
to the citizen who achieves the greatest improvement of his property during 
the year. 

Markets committee: To stimulate trade with local merchants, with 
"Trade at Home" the motto ; to maintain a branch of the National House- 
wives' League of America; to secure better co-operation between house- 
wives and local merchants and more domestic science in the home. 

Education committee: To widen the educational and library uses of 
public schools and the fieldhouse, including vocational training, physical edu- 
cation for every school child, and evening classes for working boys and 
girls ; to co-operate with parent-teacher associations ; and to extend the 
library service in the neighborhood. 

Civics committee: To conduct a civics intelhgence bureau; to provide 
educational programs with reference to all issues represented on the little 
ballot, presenting both sides of each question by their respective ablest ex- 
ponents; and to afford the citizens — giving special invitations to those newly 
naturalized— an opportunity to hear in one evening and from the same plat- 
form all party and independent candidates for the same office. 

Athletics committee : To promote athletics in the public schools and in- 
crease attendance at both indoor and outdoor gymnasium classes in the 
park; to correlate these gymnasium classes with the Hamilton Park Tennis 
Association, the Hamilton Park Trophy Association, the respective Church 
base-ball teams and other ball teams and athletic clubs in behalf of com- 
munity service ; and to arrange an annual calendar of outdoor sports, in- 
cluding track and field meets, tennis tournaments, amateur baseball leagues, 
and volley ball, field hockey and soccer, — maintaining both a men's and a 
women's schedule. 

Social committee : To promote personal acquaintance among neighbors ; 
to maintain a game room in the field house for children during the day and 
youth in the evenings when they are not participating in other activities; 
to organize a young men's club; to formulate rules governing dancing and 
to provide hostesses at all parties. 

Dramatic committee: To organize clubs for the study of drama and 
the presentation of plays by children, youth and adults; to elevate public 
taste for plays by the selection and presentation of the best dramatic litera- 
ture. 



Musical committee: To maintain a Hamilton Park Civic Music Club, 
with such departments as choruses for children and adults, music study, an 
orchestra, a band, quartettes ; to elevate musical taste by demanding stand- 
ards of band concerts and of moving-picture houses and conducting — in co- 
operation with the civic music association of Chicago — Sunday afternoon 
concerts in the field house ; to further community music by organizing out- 
door choral festivals, presented by cooperation between all musical clubs and 
church choirs in the neighborhood; and to formulate a calendar of musical 
events for the year. 

Literary committee : To conduct a series of debates and declamatory 
and public speaking contests for young men and women, especially those not 
attending school or college ; and to contribute to the pleasant Sunday after- 
noon programs during the winter at the field house. 

Arts and Crafts committee : To promote both the Boy Scout and the 
Campfire Girl organizations ; to provide for the study of basketry, leather- 
work, book-binding, sketching, modeling, wood-work, paper-work, designing, 
stenciling, sewing, for both children, youth and adults. 

Outdoor Life committee : To organize nature study, teaching an ap- 
preciation for wild things, observing trees and shrubs in park and on boule- 
vards, and cultivating children's gardens ; to conduct walking clubs for 
adults ; and to maintain a summer camp for children and family groups. 

This organized community adopted the follov^ing constitution : 

Article I : Name. 

The name of this organization shall be "The Hamilton Park Neighbor- 
hood Council." 

Article II : Object 

The object of the Council is to promote the community interests that 
center in and about Hamilton Park, Chicago, Illinois, and encourage mutual 
improvement and good fellowship among its members. 

Article III : Membership 

Members shall be persons interested in the object of the Council as de- 
scribed in Article II of this constitution and who shall be eligible under the 
provisions as set forth in the By-Laws of the Council. 

Article IV: Officers 

Section i. The officers of the Council shall consist of President, First 
Vice-President, Second Vice-President, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Treas- 
urer, Assistant Treasurer and Chairman of the Board of Directors. 

Section 2. An election of officers for the ensuing year shall take place 
at the annual meeting. Any member in good standing shall be eligible to 
hold office. 

Section 3. The Board of Directors shall consist of all chairmen of 
standing committees. 

Section 4. The affairs of the Council shall be entrusted to an Executive 
Committee composed of the officers of the Council and the Board of Direc- 
tors. 

9 



Section 5. The Executive Committee shall prepare and adopt a series 
of By-Laws in harmony with this Constitution which shall govern its pro- 
cedure. Such By-Laws shall be adopted or may be amended by a concur- 
ring vote of not less than a majority of the members of the Executive Com- 
mittee, provided that the text of a proposed By-Law or amendment shall 
be read at a regular meeting of the Committee and furnished each absent 
member of the Executive Committee at least ten days before the meeting at 
which a vote on same shall be taken, or that the text of a proposed By-Law 
or amendment shall be furnished each member of the Executive Committee 
at least ten days before the meeting at which a vote on same shall be taken. 

Article V : Meetings 

The first regular meeting in the calendar year shall be the regular meet- 
ing. 

Article VI : Amendments 

Section i. This Constitution may be amended only at the annual meet- 
ing or any adjourned session thereof. 

Section 2. Proposed amendments must be presented in writing to the 
Secretary at a regular meeting, signed by at least three members of the 
Council in good standing in ample time to be read at not less than two 
regular meetings of the Council, one of which shall be the regular meeting 
immediately preceeding the annual meeting. If two-thirds of the votes cast 
are in favor of the proposed amendment, it shall be adopted. 

A brief statement of the chief difficulties which this community 
council encountered may be illuminating. First, the population 
served was too large; second, the boundaries of the district were 
not clearly determined; third, the park was located arbitrarily and 
its surrounding community possessed, therefore, no natural unity 
due to geography, demography or industry; and fourth, the park 
commissioners rigidly enforced an antiquated ordinance which for- 
bade any group using park facilities to charge admission fees, solicit 
funds, or sell articles while making use of building or grounds. 

6. An Outline for the Study of Community Organisation. 
Herewith is presented an outline and bibliography for the study 
of community organization; its basis, movement, nature, technique, 
practice. 

PART I : THE BASIS OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 
Chapter I. The Efficacy of Community Organization. 

The efficacy of community organization may be shown by 
the nature and function of the four following facts : 

A. The fact of social telesis, — discuss both, 

1. The meaning of the term, and 

2. Historical examples of its use. 

B. The force of public opinion, — formulate 

1. A definition of public opinion, 

2. Contrast it with class and popular views, 

3. Discuss it as a medium of self-direction. 

10 



C. The nature of democracy, — stating 

1. A definition of democracy and of its respective types : 
political, social, industrial, educational, religious ; and 

2. Contrasting it with sovietism, communism, socialism, 
republicanism, bureaucracy. Also, 

3. Discriminate between ancient, early modern, and con- 
temporary democracy with respect to universality, 
suffrage, rights of the individual, duties of citizen- 
ship. 

D. The role of the primary social groups, — the family, the 
play-group ; the neighborhood ; discuss, 

1. The socializing force of each group, and 

2. The place of the neighborhood as a social mechanism 
in both primitive and civilized society. 

References : Nos. 1-7 incl. in bibliography below. 

Chapter 11. The Occasion for Community Organization. 

The timeliness of the community organization movement is 
seen in the recognition of the following events : 

A. The historical prototypes of organized communities, — 
the Saxon "mark"; the Russian "mir"; the Swiss "canton"; 
the "guilds" ; the "free cities" ; the N. E. "town meeting." De- 
scribe, 

1. The nature and function of each institution, and 

2. Their limitations as expressions of collective life. 

B. Certain American traits, which form the subjective 
ground for achievement of success by the movement, such as 

1. Liberty and self-reliance, 

2. Union and co-operation, 

3. Democracy and the square deal. 

C. Changes in American life, — since the beginning of the 
nation: immigration, specialization, urbanization, transporta- 
tion, communication, recreation, and representation in govern- 
ment, among others ; discuss, 

1. The extent to which these have occurred, 

2. How they make neighborhood reconstruction both 
difficult and necessary, if democracy is to be fulfilled. 

D. The potentiality of the neighborhood, — a little democ- 
racy ; analyze 

1. Neighborhood consciousness as a social force in urb- 
an, village or rural communities today; and 

2. The necessity for its restoration — because of the re- 
lationship it bears to national democracy. 

References : Nos. 8-26 below. 



PART II: THE COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION MOVE- 
MENT 

Chapter III. Antecedent Factors in Reconstruction. 

The development of self-consciousness and self-reliance on 
the part of the people through voluntary co-operation for ideal 
ends outside those pertaining to government and which lead 
finally to organization of the neighborhood in direct and close 
support of the national government, may be said to have had 
its beginnings in events such as these : 

A. Earlier contributory events, — the (i) town libraries, 
parks and halls; (2) the social settlements; (3) the Hisperia 
Movement; (4) the evening lectures in New York City public 
schools since 1888; (5) the Chautauqua movement; (6) Farm- 
ers' Institutes and Granges; and (7) University extension 
courses. 

1. The nature of each movement, and 

2. The relation to community expression. 

B. Later contributory events, making possible a more com- 
prehensive approach to community organization : ( i ) the 
playground movement; (2) the opening of 10 small parks — 
neighborhood centers — by the South Park Commissioners, Chi- 
cago, 1905; (3) Consolidated township schools; (4) Parent- 
teacher associations and mothers' clubs; (5) Rochester social 
centers and civic clubs, in school houses, '07- '09; (6) Country 
life movement; (9) Wider use of school plants; (10) Church 
Federation movement; (11) Garden city movement; (12) 
Public forum movement; (13) Community drama and pagean- 
try; (14) Community music; (15) Co-operative buying 
leagues. 

1. The facts of each movement, and 

2. The contribution made to community organization. 
References : Nos. 27-55 i^^cl. below. 

Chapter IV. Attempts at More Comprehensive Action. 

Progress toward a more comprehensive organization of col- 
lective action that terminated in the Community Council and a 
national movement for community organization is seen in the 
following experiments : 

A. Steps that led to a national movement : ( i ) Southwest- 
ern social centers conference, Dallas Tex., Feb. i, 191 1; (2) 
First national conference and the organization of "Social Cen- 
ter Association of America," Madison, Wis., 191 1 ; (3) Organ- 
ization of the Community Center Association of America, New 
York City, April, 1916; (4) Second meeting of that confer- 
ence, Chicago 1917; (5) Publication of the Community Center 
Magazine, 1916; (6) Appointment of community organization 



experts in U. S. Bureau of Education, 1917; (7) Organization 
of Community Councils throughout the nation at the request of 
the Council of National Defense and the Government, 1918; 
(8) Holding of Better Community conferences in several 
states, notably in Illinois since 1916. 

I. The facts of each and its contribution. 
B. The development of "Community Councils," — (i) Oseo, 
Wis., June 20, 1914, created "civic secretary" ; and Sauk City 
and Neillsville, also of Wisconsin, soon followed; (2) N. Y. 
Neighborhood Associations about public schools; (3) the 
Hamilton Park Neighborhood Council, Chicago, 191 3- 14, mem- 
bership the whole community; (4) the Palmer Park Com- 
munity Council, Chicago. — membership, representative of local 
institutions; (5) Community councils part of South Park, Chi- 
cago, program of 1915; (6) Councils organized in recreation 
parks of Philadelphia 1915; (7) Organization of Community 
Councils in New York City; Chicago public schools, notably 
the Harrison Technical H. S. ; and suburban and village com- 
munities ; (8) Organization of Community Centers Conference 
of Chicago, 1916; membership, representatives of local coun- 
cils in parks and schools ; motive, co-operation between coun- 
cils in securing speakers and clearing house of ideas on meth- 
ods ; (9) Organization of the Parliament of Councils, N. Y. C, 
for stimulation and guidance of local councils, 1919; (10) Or- 
ganization of the Los Angeles Council of Community Service, 
February, 1919, headquarters in City Hall, and 750 precinct 
units organized throughout the city; (n) the National Social 
Unit Organization experiment in Cincinnati, O. 

References : Nos. 27-55. 

PART HI : THE NATURE OF THE ORGANIZED COM- 
MUNITY 

Chapter V. Fundamental Concepts. 

There is need for discriminating between the following con- 
cepts : 

A. Community, neighborhood, ward, precinct, district; 
what is each and how related to our problem ? 

B. City planning, garden cities, civic centers, public wel- 
fare; how related to community organization? 

C. The distinction between social centers, neighborhood 
centers, community centers and community organization. 

D. The differences between Home and School Leagues, 
Civic Clubs, Neighborhood Associations, Neighborhood Coun- 
cils. 

References: 40, 56-61. 



Chapter VI. Some Outstanding Features. 

The dominant traits of an organized community are well 
stated in "A Community Center," by Jackson. The following 
is largely an adaptation : 

A. "The People's University," . , . "to deepen the con- 
tent and broaden the scope of the term 'education' and to ex- 
tend the activities of the public schools so that they may evolve 
into people's universities," p. 3. 

B. "The Community Capitol," . . . "every school house 
should be used as a polling place. This is the first logical step 
toward making it the community capitol," p. 5. 

C. "The Community Forum," . . , "the meeting of citi- 
zens in their school house for the courteous and orderly discus- 
sion of all questions which concern their common welfare," 
p. 8. 

D. "The Neighborhood Club," . . . "democracy is the or- 
ganization of society on the basis of friendship. . . . The pub- 
lic school therefore stands before an open door of opportunity 
to become a neighborhood club," p. 12. 

E. "The Home and School League," . . . "The community 
center ... is not a rival, but an ally. Its plan is to give to 
and not take from the Home and School League," p. 17. 

F. "The Cooperative Exchange." . . . "The fundamental 
aim of the community-center movement is to secure coopera- 
tion for the common welfare," p. 2^. 

G. "The Child's Right of Way," . . . "the distinguishing 
mark of the community center is the fact that it is organized 
... on the basis of responsibility for the welfare of chil- 
dren," p. 33. 

H. "A Little Democracy," . . . "The organization of a 
community around the schoolhouse as its capitol is the crea- 
tion of a new political unit, a little democracy," p. 39. 

I. More organization, less organizations, is the distinguish- 
ing structural feature of the organized community. 

J. The battleground of democracy, where full-measured 
self-government is to be practiced by the people. 

K. The community clearing house. 

References : 56-77. 

Chapter VII. The Field of Activities. 

The scope and function of the organized community is 
illustrated by concrete examples of its action, such as : 

A. Activities relating to physical environment, (i) road 
and street improvement; (2) hygiene and sanitation; (3) bet- 
ter agricultural methods — care of soil and crops ; (4) city 
planning, civic centers, garden cities, better homes; (5) parks 
and playgrounds; (6) community gardens; (7) community 
markets ; (8) new school architecture. 

14 



B. Activities relating to social environment, (i) surveys; 
(2) libraries, museums, art institutes; (3) community music, 
drama and pageantry; (4) juvenile and adults recreation; 
(5) school extension; (6) federated churches; (7) social leg- 
islation; (8) philanthropy; (9) Americanization; (10) com- 
munity banking; (11) community press; (12) community 
forum; (13) more dignified polling places; (14) industrial 
welfare. 

. References : 2y-yy. 

Chapter VIII. The Physical Facilities. 

The physical facilities of the organized community are 
twofold: outdoor and indoor. 

A. Outdoor Equipment, comprises the park, the playground 
and the schoolyard — each with its distinctive uses. 

B. Indoor Equipment, may comprise field house, city hall, 
church, court house, school house, . . . "it is profoundly im- 
portant that the community ideal should be embodied in a 
type of school building which represents it. . . . It ought to 
look like a house of the people. What are its needs . . . 
what style of building best serves these needs?" ref. 57; p. 7. 
(i) The needs of a community building. (2) The limitations 
of the Colonial and the Gothic styles of architecture for dem- 
ocracy's schoolhouse. (3) The characteristics of democracy's 
schoolhouse. 

References : 56-77. 

PART IV : THE TECHNIQUE OF COMMUNITY ORGANI- 
ZATION 

Chapter IX. The Social Structure. 

The term social structure here refers to the nature of the 
organization itself ; the machinery of collective effort. 

A. Conditions of membership, (i) types of members, (a) 
representatives of local associations, (b) all individuals of the 
community; (2) required or optional membership dues; (3) 
regular, sustaining, contributing members. 

B. Community Secretary, (i) the function of the office; 
(2) required qualifications; (3) election or appointment. 

C. Executive Committee, — (i) regular officers, their re- 
spective functions, election, qualifications; (2) board of direc- 
tors, their function, selection. 

D. Standing Committees, (i) names, duties, appointment; 
(2) specially important ones, (a) program or "trouble" com- 
mittee, (b) the ways and means committee. 



E. Correlation of Council with Agencies, within and with- 
out the community, which are indispensable to its success, (i) 
local agencies, types, relationships, (b) city- or county-wide 
or national agencies or movements, (c) the community clear- 
ing house. 

References : 56-77. 

Chapter X. The Constitution. 

"As regards the work of the community center, the consti- 
tution is a working agreement, a clear understanding as to what 
is to be done and who is to do it." Ref. 57; p. 63. 

A. The necessity and function of a constitution. 

B. The essential characteristics of a constitution. 

C. Critical study of selected constitutions. 

D. An ideal form for a community constitution. 
References: 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 64, 68, 69. 

Chapter XL Financial Support. 

"For a community to raise part of its funds is not only 
social justice to other communities, but a benefit to the com- 
munity itself," 57; p. 61. 

A. Arguments for and against public support. 

B. Present necessity for part self-support. 

C. Methods of self-support : income and voluntary. 

D. The Ways and Means Committee ; its dark function. 
References: 56, 57, 59, 61, 64, 68, 69. 

Chapter XII. Overhead Organization. 

The first attempts at community organization were iso- 
lated, uncorrelated efforts. In time, however, it came to be 
recognized that cooperation between neighboring attempts 
would be mutually beneficial. Still more recently some unify- 
ing body has obtained. 

A. The Community Centers Conference, Chicago, 1916. 

B. The Parliament of Councils, New York, 1919. 

C. The City Advisory Committee, and the functional over- 
head committees of New York City, 1919. 

D. Supervisory Work of State Committees of Council of 
National Defense, 1918. 

E. The Los Angeles Council of Community Service, 1919. 
References : 64, 69. 

PART V : CASE STUDY OF ORGANIZED COMMUNITIES 
Chapter XIII. Rural Community Organisation. 

Examples of strictly rural — i. e., country-side — organiza- 
tions are few ; usually a village is included in the plan of de- 
velopment. 

16 



f A. The Line Fourteen Club, is a strictly rural enterprise, 

being carried out near Pittsfield, 111., and worthy of study, 

B. The rural experiment near Durham, Calif., described 
in reference 52 is unique in some respects. 

C. The county organization reported in reference 57. 

D. Rural experiments described in references 38, 41, 42, 
61, 67. 

Chapter XIV. Community Organisation in Towns. 

Examples of town organization are numerous ; ideally they 
should include the surrounding rural area. 

A. The Coopersburgh, Pa., experiment, reference 17, p. 
221-233. 

B. A Village, reference 57, p. 101-104. 

C. Sauk City, Oseo, and Neillsville, Wis., reference 54. 

D. Walpole, Mass., in Town Planning for Small Communi- 
ties, C. S. Bird, D. Appleton Co., 1917. 

E. See also references 38, 39, 41, 42, 43. 

Chapter XV. Organisation of City Neiyhhorhoods. 

A. Community Councils in the South Parks, Chicago. 

B. Community Councils in New York City, reference 69. 

C. The Wilson Normal Community, Washington, D. C, 
reference 57. 

D. A Big City, reference 57. 

E. The Los Angeles Councils of Community Service. 

Chapter XVI. Other Types of Organized Communities. 

A. A Suburb, reference 57, p. 108-114. 

B. A Small City, reference 57, p. 114-117. 

C. An Average City, reference 57, p. 1 17-122. 

D. A State, reference 57, p. 126-132. 



17 



A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I: The Underlying Philosophy: Social Telesis, Public Opinion, De- 
mocracy AND THE Neighborhood 

1. Applied Sociology, Lester F. Ward, Ginn & Co., 1906, pp. 13-17. Chap- 

ter II. The Eflficacy of Effort. A refutation of the theor>' of spon- 
taneous development of social progress. 

2. Social Organisation, Chas. H. Cooley, Scribners & Sons, N. Y., 1914. 

Chapters 1-5 incl. and 8. Herein are treated the social and individual 
aspects of mind, the family, play-groups and the neighborhood as 
primary social groups ; and the social mechanism needed for the 
animation of primary ideals. 

3. Theories of Social Progress, Arthur J. Todd, Macmillan Co., N. Y., 

191S. Chapter XXV, Public Opinion. A statement of its definition, 
function, limitations as an institution. 

4. What Is This Thing We Call Democracy? Frank Crane, Red Cross 

Magazine, Nov., 1919, pp. 11-13 ff. A valuable and interesting formu- 
lation of a concept of democracy; ten aspects. 

5. Our Democracy, Its Origin and Its Tasks, James H. Tufts, Henry Holt, 

N. Y., 1917. Chapter I. Introduction; II. Early Life of Man; III. 
First Cooperation — the Clan and Its Customs ; IV. The New Group — 
Social Classes and the Great State- As stated in the preface, "It 
has little to say about the machinery of our government ; its main 
concern is with the principles and ideas which the machinery is meant 
to serv^e. ... It is not a product of the war." 

6. The Neighborhood in Social Reconstruction, Robert A. Woods, Amer. 

Sociological Society Papers, and Proceedings, 1913, p. 14-28. Analyses 
the potentialities of the neighborhood in the promotion of health, 
vocational guidance, and wholesome recreation. 

7. The American City: A Problem in Democracy, Delos F. Wilcox, Mac- 

millan Co., 1911. Chapter I, Democracy and City Life in America; 
VIII, Local Centers of Civic Life; each discusses the relation of the 
neighborhood to self-government. 

II : The Conditioning Tradition and Traits. 

A. — National Traits and Changes 

8. Changing America, Edward A. Ross, Century Co-, N. Y., 1912. Espe- 

cially Chapters I, The Outlook for Plain Folk; and II, The World- 
Wide Advance of Democracy. 

9. Essentials of Americanization , Emory S. Bogardus, Univ. of S. Califor- 

nia Press, 1919. Chapters II- V, incl., treat certain traits of America; 
"liberty and self-reliance; union and cooperation, democracy and the 
square deal ; internationalism and brotherhood." 

18 



10. Socialisation, E. A. Ross, Amer. Jour. Sociology, May, 1919; p. 652-671. 

Discusses the following: "the emotional community, common meal, 
role of the festival, group life as a socializer, sport as a socializer, 
community of interest, collision of interest, nationalization, disruptive 
ideas, the expanded self, obstacles to socialization." 

B. — The Town Meeting 

11. The Community and the Citizen, A. W. Dunn, D. C. Heath & Co-, 

Boston, 1908. Chapter XXI, The Government of Rural Communities : 
Township and County. An excellent description of the town meet- 
ing, and township and country government. 

12. New England Town Meeting of Today, Alexander J. Barron, Outlook, 

vol. 75: 405-409. 

13. The Town Meeting, Geo. E. Googins, Outlook, vol. 32:561-565. A de- 

scription of a town meeting. 

14. Brookline and Her Government by Direct Legislation, Arena, vol- 34: 

39. 

C. — City Neighborhoods 

15. The City and Its Local Community, Robert A. Woods, Conference of 

Social Work, 1917, p. 455-458. 

16. The Significance to the City of Its Local Community Life, Mary E. 

McDowell, Conference of Social Work, 1917, p. 458-464. 

D. — Current Town and County Conditions 

17. The Little Town, Harlan P. Douglass, Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1919. A 

sympathetic analysis of the village community: its psychology, struc- 
ture, possibilities and relation to rural development. 

i8- The Social Anatomy of a Rural Community, C. J. Galpin, Univ. of Wis. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin, No. 34. An important interpretation of the 
town. 

19. Rural Relations of the Village and Small City, C. J. Galpin, Univ. of 

Wis., Bulletin No. 411. 

20. Report of Country Life Commission, Government Printing Office, Wash- 

ington, D. C, 1909. 

21. Presbyterian Board of Home Missions Report, Dept. of Church and 

Country Life. Rural Survey of Maryland, of Missouri, of Indiana, 
of Kentucky. 

22. Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities, Jos. K. Hart, 

Macmillan, 1913. 

19 



Ill: Prototypes and Antecedents of the Organized Community. 

A. — Prototypes 

28. American Political Ideals, John Fisk, Harper & Brc, N. Y., 1885; p. 
2-56. While this chapter is entitled "The Town Meeting," it discusses 
the ancient Saxon "mark" and the age-old Russian "mir," as well as 
the N. E. Town Meeting. 

24. Government in Switzerland, ]■ M. Vincent, Macmillan, N. Y., 1900. 

Chapters II and IX discuss the canton and its relation to the "mark," 
respectively. 

25. Ultimate Democracy, N. L. Sims, A. C. McClurg, N. Y., 1917. Chapter 

I, Original Democracy; II, Ancient Democracy; III, Modem 
Democracy. 

26. Rise of Modern Democracy, C- Borgeand, Scribners & Sons, N. Y., 

1894. Introduction, holds that modern democracy is the result of 
the Reformation ; Part I describes rise of democracy in Old Eng- 
land; while Part II, that in New England. 

B. — Antecedents 

27. Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy, Joseph Lee, Macmillan, N. Y., 

1902. Chapter II traces the rise of town libraries, and Chapters VIII, 
IX and X that of playgrounds ; early community expressions. 

28. Twenty-five Years of Free Lectures, C. F. Home, Outlook, May 23, 

1914, p. 185-191. Discusses lectures in the New York City public 
schools since 1888. 

29. Philanthropy and Social Progress, Jane Addams, T. Y. Crowell, N. Y., 

1893. Chapters I and II discuss the reason for settlements from 
both the objective and subjective aspects. 

30. South Park Neighborhood Centers, Henry G. Foreman, Century, vol. 

47, p. 610-620. A valuable article written at time the small parks 
were opened and expressive of their motive. 

31. Rochester Social Centers and Civic Clubs, Pub. by League of Civic 

Clubs, Rochester, N. Y., 1909. Narrative of first two years of the 
use of school houses as social centers and civic clubs, — on a new and 
popular basis. 

32. Rochester Social Centers, E. J. Ward, Proceedings of Playground and 

Recreation Association, vol. Ill ; p. 387-396. 

33. Social Centers in the Southwest, C. W. Holman and C. D. Murphy, 

Texas Farm and Ranch Pub Co., Dallas, Tex., 1912. History of the 
movement to organize neighborhood clubs about school houses in the 
Southwest. Contains model constitution and other suggestions on 
organization. 

20 



34- Southwestern Social Center Conference, E. J. Ward, The Survey, Mar. 
i8, igii, p. 1002-3. 

35. Focusing Social Forces in the Southwest, C- W. Holman, The Survey, 

Sept. 23, 191 1, p. 866-8. 

36. Chapters in Rural Progress, Kenyon L. Butterfield, U. of C. Press, Chi- 

cago, igoS. 251 pages. 

27. The Country Life Movement, L. H. Bailey, Macmillan, N. Y., 191 1. 

38. Wisconsin Country Life Conferences, Bulletin Univ. of Wis., Serial No. 

472, Gen. Series 308; 509, 342; 591, 413; 711, 515. 

39. Village Improvement, P. T. Farwell, Sturgis and Walton Co., N. Y., 

1913. History of experience of New England village improvement 
societies. Many concrete examples from other parts of country. 
Six-page bibliography. 

40. The Garden City Movement Up to Date, Garden Cities and Town-Plan- 

ning Association, London, 1914. 

41. Rural Improvement, Frank A. Waugh, Orange Judd Co., N. Y., 1914. 

Chapters V, Civic Centers; IX, Community Planning; XII, Improve- 
ment Programs; and XIII, Organization and Management. 

42. Play and Recreation for the Open Country, Henry S. Curtis, Ginn & 

Co., Boston, 1914. 

43. Community Music and Drama, Univ. of Wis., Ext. Div. Bulletin General 

Series No. 638, 1917. 

44. The Spread of the Community Music Idea, P. W. Dykema Amer. 

Acad, of Pol. and Soc- Sci. for 1916, p. 218-223. 

45. The Civic Theatre in Relation to the Redemption of Leisure, Percy 

Mackaye, 1912. Pages 161-177, discuss American pageants and their 
promise. 

46. The Community Church, Interdenominational Commission of Maine, 

Lewiston, 1914. Describes four forms of federation and discusses 
community aspects of rehgion. 

47. The Community Church, H. E. Jackson, 1919. 

48. Democracy in the Making, Geo. A. Coleman, Little Brown & Co., Bos- 

ton, 191 5. A complete history of the Ford Hall Forum and Town 
Meeting, Boston. Discusses also speakers, topics, methods, spirit. 

49. Recent Progress in Wider Use of School Plant, C. A. Perry, U. S. Bu. 

of Ed., 1914 report, vol. I, ch. XXI, p. 455-471. 

50. Are Neighborhood Centers Worth While, the Playground, Nov., 1915. 

This number contains 31 full-page views of activities in public school 
social centers, Milwaukee, Wis., autumn, 1915. 

51. Report on Community Centers in Chicago, Board of Education, 1916. 

Describes only the public school centers. 

21 



52. Buying a Farm in a New Way, Elwood Mead, Ladies' Home Jour., 

June, 1919, p. 27 f. Description of the application of the California 
Land Settlement Act to the community of Durham, Calif. 

53. Ford Hall Folks, a magazine pub. by Ford Hall, Boston. 

54. American Municipal Progress, Chas. Zueblin, Macmillan Co., N. Y. 

Ch. XIV, Social Centers, in New York, Chicago, Rochester and other 
communities. 

55. National Social Unit Organisation, Cincinnati, O., Bulletin Nos. i, 2, 

2a, 3, 4. 



IV: Community Centers, Community Councils, Community Polling 
Places, Community Surveys, Community Secretaries, 

56. The Meaning of Community Centers, John Collier, Conference of Social 

Work, 1918; p. 464-470. 

57. A Community Center, What It Is and How to Organize It, H. E. Jack- 

son, Macmillan Co., N- Y., 1918. This is largely a reprint of Bulletin 
No. II, U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1918. It analyzes both the function and 
the structure of the organized community; contains many practical 
suggestions. Most valuable book to date. 

58. Community Center Activities, C. A. Perry, Russell Sage Foundation, 

1916. Classifies community center activities, revealing the field and 
function of community expression. 

59. The Social Center, E. J. Ward, D. Appleton Co., N. Y., 1913. An ex- 

pression of the field and function of the organized community, 
through the use of the public school plant. 

60. The Wider Use of the School Plant, C. A. Perry, Russell Sage Founda- 

tion, N. Y., 1910. A plea for educational extension, recreational and 
community expression, through the public school. 

61. The Little Democracy, Mrs. Ida Clyde Clark, D. Appleton & Co., N. Y., 

1918- Designed for a text-book on community organization. 

62. Community Centers in Social Education, John Collier, Amer. Sociologi- 

cal Society Papers and Proceedings, vol. XIII; 111-116. 

63. The Consolidated School as a Community Center, J. H. Cook, Amer. 

Sociological Society Papers and Proc, 1916, p. 97-105. 

64. The Community Center, magazine of the National Community Center 

Association. Contains papers on administration. 

65. The Community Clearing House, Mildred Taylor, 1917. A pamphlet 

pub. at 217 E. 22nd St., N. Y. C. 

66. Educational Aspect of Play and Recreation, Clarence Rainwater, Bulletin 

Ext. Div., Univ. of Ind. ; vol. II, No. i, p. 5-10. 

22 



67. Mobilising the Rural Community, E. L. Morgan, Mass. Agricultural 

College, Extension Service, Amherst, Mass., Ext. Bulletin No. 23, 
1918. 

68. Community Councils, What Have They Done and What Is Their Func- 

tion? John Collier, Conference of Social Work, 1919- 

69. Community Councils of New York City, pamphlet prepared for the 

conference held at the home of Mrs. Frank A. Vanderlip, July 12, 
1919. A statement of current problems and methods of councils in 
N. Y. C. Describes overhead organization. 

70. Community Organisation and the Great Decision, John Collier. An 8 p. 

pamphlet reprinted from the Magazine of the Seward Park Com- 
munity Center, New York City, July, 1919. It discusses the origin of 
the community organization movement and its relation to govern- 
ment and organized labor. 

71. The Schoolhouse as the Polling Place, E. J. Ward, U. S. Bu. of Ed. 

Bulletin 1915, No. 13, p. 13-25. 

y^. Polling Places in the Schools, L. H. Pink, Nat. Municipal Rev., July, 
1913- 

72)- Community Action Through Surveys, S. N. Harrison, Nat. Conf. Chari- 
ties and Corrections, 1916, p. 52-62. 

74. The Social Survey, Carol Aronovici, The Harper Press, 1916. 

75. A Method of Making a Social Survey in a Rural Community... C. J. 

Galpin, Univ. of Wis., Agricultural Exp. Sta., No. 29, 1912. 

76. The Greatest Office in Any Community, E. J. Ward, LaFollette's Mag., 

Sept. 5, 1914. A study of the community secretary. 

yy. A Community Secretary, Graham Taylor, Nat. Municipal Rev., Apr., 
1915- 

78. Handbook for Community Organization, State Council of Defense, Cali- 
fornia State Pub. Co., Sacramento, Dec. i, 1918- 



V. Bibliographies 

79. Community Centers, Select list of references in the Chicago Public Li- 

brary, compiled by Nathan R. Levin and Edith Kammerling, Nat. 
Com. Center Conf., Chicago, 1917. A pamphlet, 16 p. 

80. The Little Town, Harlan P. Douglass, Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1919; 

p. 245-253. 

81. The Social Center, E. J. Ward, D. Appleton Co., N. Y., 1913 ; p. 344-351. 

82. American Municipal Progress, Chas. Zueblin, Macmillan Co., N. Y. ; 

p. 471-474- 

23 



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